ROS2之Gazebo物理仿真平台
ROS机器人开发，机器人当然是主角，如果我们手边没有实物机器人，怎么办呢？没问题，机器人三维物理仿真平台Gazebo，了解一下。
一、Gazebo仿真平台
Gazebo是ROS系统中最为常用的三维物理仿真平台，支持动力学引擎，可以实现高质量的图形渲染，不仅可以模拟机器人及周边环境，还可以加入摩擦力、弹性系数等物理属性。
比如我们要开发一个火星车，那就可以在Gazebo中模拟火星表面的环境，再比如我们做无人机，续航和限飞都导致我们没有办法频繁用实物做实验，此时不妨使用Gazebo先做仿真，等算法开发的差不多了，再部署到实物上来运行。
所以类似Gazebo这样的仿真平台，可以帮助我们验证机器人算法、优化机器人设计、测试机器人场景应用，为机器人开发提供更多可能。
1.1 安装测试
Gazebo如何使用呢？我们不妨先把它给跑起来，互相认识一下。
1.1.1 安装
为了确保系统中已经完整安装了Gazebo相关的功能包，我们可以通过这样一个命令，简单直接的把和Gazebo相关的包都给装上：
zhengyang@ubuntu:~/dev_ws$ sudo apt install ros-humble-gazebo-*
注意：这里安装我们要运行在ubuntu宿主机上，像NanoPC-T6这样的嵌入式ARM设备上运行Gazebo这类3D物理仿真软件，即使成功安装，也可能面临性能严重不足的问题。
1.1.2 运行
接着我们通过这句命令启动Gazebo：
zhengyang@ubuntu:~/dev_ws$ source /usr/share/gazebo/setup.sh
zhengyang@ubuntu:~/dev_ws$ ros2 launch gazebo_ros gazebo.launch.py
打开Gazebo的时候，默认是没有模型的，需要手动下载配置。
1.1.3 导入模型
下载模型，osrf库包含许多常用模型：
zhengyang@ubuntu:~$ mkdir ~/.gazebo/models
zhengyang@ubuntu:~$ cd ~/.gazebo/models
zhengyang@ubuntu:~/.gazebo/models$ git clone --depth 1 https://github.com/osrf/gazebo_models.git
zhengyang@ubuntu:~/.gazebo/models$ mv gazebo_models/* ./
zhengyang@ubuntu:~/.gazebo/models$ rm -rf gazebo_models/
查看我们下载的模型：
zhengyang@ubuntu:~/.gazebo/models$ ls
ambulance fast_food polaris_ranger_xp900
apartment fire_hose_long polaris_ranger_xp900_no_roll_cage
apollo15_landing_site_1000x1000 fire_hose_long_curled police_station
arm_part fire_hydrant postbox
arrow_red fire_station post_office
asphalt_plane fire_truck powerplant
asus_xtion_pro_camera first_2015_trash_can pr2
ball_bearing follower_vehicle pr2_gripper
beer fountain prius_hybrid
bin_4_dropping_task gasket_part prius_hybrid_sensors
bookshelf gas_station pulley_part
bowl gazebo quadrotor
box_target_green gear_part r2_description
......
再次打开Gazebo便可以加载我们下载好的models了。
1.1.4 测试
打开Gazebo，在Insert面板中选择ambulance模型导入，查看效果；
1.2 Gazebo GUI简介
接下来，我们将对Gazebo图形用户界面进行介绍。我们将学习到一些基本操作，例如按钮的功能以及如何在场景中导航。
启动Gazebo后，你将看到这个界面：
Gazebo交互界面由许多组成部分，接下来将逐一介绍。
1.2.1 场景(Scene)
场景是模拟器的主要部分，是仿真模型显示的地方，你可以在这操作仿真对象，使其与环境进行交互。
1.2.2 面板（Panels）
面板分为左右两侧，可以把两侧的面板设置为显示、隐藏或调整它的大小。
1.2.2.1 左侧面板
启动Gazebo时，默认情况下会显示左侧面板。面板中有三个选项卡：
World：该选项卡显示当前场景中的模型，并允许您查看和修改模型参数，例如它们的姿势。您也可以通过展开GUI选项并调整相机姿势来更改相机视角；Insert：该选项卡是向仿真场景中添加新对象（模型），要查看模型列表，需要单击箭头展开文件夹。单击（并释放）要插入的模型，然后在场景中再次单击以添加它；Layers：该选项卡组织并显示仿真中可用的不同可视化组，一个图层可以包含一个或多个模型，打开或关闭图层将显示或隐藏该图层中的模型。这是一个可选功能，因此在大多数情况下，此选项卡将为空；
1.2.2.2 右侧面板
默认情况下，右侧面板处于隐藏状态。单击并拖动该栏以将其打开。右面板可用于与选定模型的移动部件（关节）交互。如果场景中没有选择模型，面板将不显示任何信息。
1.2.3 工具栏（Toolbars）
Gazebo界面有两个工具栏。一个位于场景上方，另一个位于下方。
1.2.3.1 顶部工具栏
顶部工具栏为主工具栏，包含一些与模拟器交互时最常用的选项，如按钮：选择、移动、旋转和缩放；创建简单形状（例如立方体、球体、圆柱体）以及复制/粘贴。
- 选择模型（
Select mode）：在场景中做标注； - 转换模式（
Translate mode）：选择要移动的模型； - 旋转模式（
Rotate mode）：选择要旋转的模型； - 缩放模式（
Scale mode）：选择要缩放的模型； - 撤消/重做（
Undo/Redo）：撤消/重做场景中的操作； - 灯光（
Lights）：将灯光添加到场景； - 复制/粘贴（
Copy/Paste）：复制/粘贴场景中的模型； - 对齐（
Align）：将模型彼此对齐； - 捕捉（
Snap）：将一个模型捕捉到另一个模型； - 更改视图（
Change view）：从不同角度查看场景。
1.2.3.2 底部工具栏
底部工具栏显示有关仿真的数据，如仿真时间（Simulation time）及其与真实时间（Real time）的关系；
- 仿真时间是指当仿真运行时，时间在仿真环境中过得有多快，仿真可以比真实时间慢或快，具体取决于运行仿真所需的计算量；
- 真实时间是指在仿真环境中运行时实际经过的时间，仿真时间和真实时间的比率称为实时因子；
世界状态每迭代一次就更新一次，您可以在底部工具栏的右侧看到迭代次数，每次迭代都会将仿真推进一个固定的秒数，称为步长。默认情况下，步长为1ms。您可以按暂停按钮暂停仿真，并使用步长按键一次执行多个步长。
1.2.3.3 菜单栏
像大多数应用程序一样，Gazebo顶部有一个应用程序菜单。某些菜单选项会显示工具栏中。在场景中，右键单击上下文菜单选项，可查看各种菜单。注意：有些Linux桌面会隐藏应用程序菜单。如果看不到菜单，请将光标移到应用程序窗口的顶部，菜单就会出现。
1.2.4 鼠标
鼠标在场景中导航时非常有用。强烈建议使用带滚轮的鼠标。下面是在场景中导航和更改视角的基本鼠标操作。右键单击模型将打开一个包含各种选项的上下文菜单。
认识了Gazebo，接下来是不是该试试机器人仿真啦？
大家还记得之前课程中，我们设计的移动机器人模型么？我们一起尝试把它放到Gazebo中，还要控制它在仿真环境中运动。
1.3 模型文件
Gazebo支持多种模型文件格式，它们通常分为两大类：模型描述文件和模型资源文件。
下图清晰地展示了这两大类及其包含的具体格式：
1.3.1 模型描述文件
这是Gazebo模型的“大脑”，用于定义模型的结构、物理属性、关节和插件等。
1.3.1.1 SDF (Simulation Description Format)
Gazebo原生、最核心且功能最强大的格式，文件后缀为.sdf 或 .world。其特点：
- 分层描述：一个
<model>可以嵌套包含另一个<model>，非常适合构建复杂的复合模型（如一辆带传感器的机器人汽车）； - 功能全面：除了基本的模型定义，还原生支持光照、大气、物理引擎参数等完整的仿真环境设置；
- 版本化：格式有版本号（如
SDF 1.6,1.9），不同版本的Gazebo支持不同的SDF版本。
使用场景：构建Gazebo世界（.world文件）、定义复杂机器人模型、配置完整的仿真环境。
1.3.1.2 URDF (Unified Robot Description Format)
ROS生态中的标准机器人描述格式，在Gazebo中通过插件兼容，文件后缀为.urdf 或 .xacro。其特点：
- 树形结构：机器人模型必须是一个没有闭环的树形结构（通过关节连接连杆），这很符合大多数机器人的实际结构；
- 侧重机器人：主要用于描述单个机器人；
- 需要扩展：原生
URDF缺乏仿真所需的许多属性（如摩擦系数、惯性细节）。为了在Gazebo中正常使用，通常需要在URDF标签内添加Gazebo特定的扩展标签（如<gazebo>）。
使用场景：主要在ROS项目中描述机器人模型，.xacro 文件可以通过 ros2 run xacro xacro 命令预处理生成 .urdf 文件。
1.3.2 模型资源文件
这些是“血肉”，为模型提供具体的几何形状、视觉外观和特效。
1.3.2.1 3D网格文件
这是最关键的资源文件，决定了模型的3D形状。
Collada(.dae)：Gazebo官方推荐的格式。支持颜色、纹理贴图、多材质和法线贴图等高级视觉特性，效果最好；OBJ(.obj)：广泛支持的简单格式，同样支持纹理贴图（需配合.mtl材质文件）；STL(.stl)：非常常见的3D打印格式，但只包含纯几何三角面片，不支持颜色和纹理，在Gazebo中视觉效果单一。
1.3.2.2 材质与纹理文件
OGRE材质脚本 (.material)：用于定义复杂的着色器、纹理混合等高级渲染效果。
图像纹理文件 (.png, .jpg)：贴在3D网格表面的图片，提供真实感。
1.3.2.3 粒子效果文件
定义烟雾、火焰、水流等动态粒子效果。
1.3.3 标准模型目录
一个标准的Gazebo模型包应包含以下文件：
model_name/
├── model.config # 模型的元数据：名称、作者、版本、描述
├── model.sdf # 模型的主体SDF描述文件（也可以是一个指向.world的配置）
└── meshes/ # 存放所有3D网格文件（.dae, .obj, .stl）
├── visual_mesh.dae
└── collision_mesh.stl (通常用更简化的网格)
这个模型文件夹可以放在你的Gazebo模型路径下（如 ~/.gazebo/models/），Gazebo启动时会自动扫描并加载。
二、自定义模型案例
我们在《ROS2之URDF建模》设计好的URDF模型此时还不能直接放到Gazebo中，需要我们做一些优化。这里给大家介绍一个URDF文件格式的升级版本——XACRO文件。
我们就通过XACRO文件对移动机器人的模型做一下优化，我们首先要使用这句命令安装必要的功能包；
zhengyang@ubuntu:~/.gazebo/models$ sudo apt install ros-humble-xacro
同样也是对机器人URDF模型的创建，XACRO文件加入了更多编程化的实现方法，可以让模型创建更友好。比如：
- 宏定义：一个小车有
4个轮子，每个轮子都一样，我们就没必要创建4个一样的link，像函数定义一样，做一个可重复使用的模块就可以了； - 文件包含：复杂机器人的模型文件可能会很长，为了切分不同的模块，比如底盘、传感器，我们还可以把不同模块的模型放置在不同的文件中，然后再用一个总体文件做包含调用；
- 可编程接口：比如在
XACRO模型文件中，定义一些常量，描述机器人的尺寸，定义一些变量，在调用宏定义的时候传递数据，还可以在模型中做数据计算，甚至加入条件语句，比如你的机器人叫A，就有摄像头，如果叫B，就没有摄像头；
下面我们将详细介绍其核心语法和用法。
2.1 常量定义
用于定义可重用的常量值，是变量管理的基础；
<!-- 定义属性（类似常量） -->
<xacro:property name="wheel_radius" value="0.1" />
<xacro:property name="wheel_length" value="0.05" />
<xacro:property name="pi" value="3.14159" />
<!-- 使用属性 -->
<cylinder radius="${wheel_radius}" length="${wheel_length}" />
<!-- 属性可以相互引用 -->
<xacro:property name="wheel_circumference" value="${2 * pi * wheel_radius}" />
<!-- 动态计算属性 -->
<xacro:property name="default_origin">
<origin xyz="0 0 0" rpy="0 0 0" />
</xacro:property>
<xacro:property>标签用来定义一些常量，比如这样定义一个\(\pi\)的常量名为pi，值为3.14159，在调用的时候，通过$加大括号，里边就可以使用定义好的常量了。
2.2 数学计算
XACRO支持丰富的数学运算和条件表达式；
<!-- 基本算术运算 -->
<cylinder radius="${wheel_radius * 1.1}" />
<origin xyz="${wheel_radius * 2} 0 0" />
<!-- 三角函数、数学函数 -->
<box size="${sin(pi/4) * 2} ${cos(pi/4)} 0.1" />
<!-- 条件表达式（三元运算符） -->
<xacro:property name="use_simple_collision" value="true" />
<geometry>
<xacro:if value="${use_simple_collision}">
<cylinder radius="${wheel_radius}" length="${wheel_length}" />
</xacro:if>
<xacro:unless value="${use_simple_collision}">
<mesh filename="package://my_robot/meshes/complex_wheel.stl" />
</xacro:unless>
</geometry>
<!-- 比较运算 -->
<xacro:property name="large_wheel" value="${wheel_radius > 0.15}" />
如果需要做数学计算，同样是在${}中进行，比如某一个位置，我们可以通过这两个常量做运算得到，就加入了加法和除法运算。
2.3 宏定义
宏是代码复用的关键，可以看作函数或模板；
<!-- 基本宏定义：定义一个轮子 -->
<xacro:macro name="wheel" params="name parent_link *origin">
<joint name="${name}_joint" type="continuous">
<parent link="${parent_link}" />
<child link="${name}_link" />
<insert_block name="origin" /> <!-- 插入 origin 块内容 -->
<axis xyz="0 1 0" />
</joint>
<link name="${name}_link">
<visual>
<geometry>
<cylinder radius="${wheel_radius}" length="${wheel_length}" />
</geometry>
<material name="black" />
</visual>
<collision>
<geometry>
<cylinder radius="${wheel_radius}" length="${wheel_length}" />
</geometry>
</collision>
<inertial>
<mass value="0.5" />
<inertia ixx="0.001" ixy="0" ixz="0" iyy="0.001" iyz="0" izz="0.001" />
</inertial>
</link>
</xacro:macro>
<!-- 使用宏 -->
<xacro:wheel name="left_front" parent_link="base_link">
<origin xyz="0.3 0.2 0" rpy="0 0 0" />
</xacro:wheel>
<!-- 带默认参数的宏 -->
<xacro:macro name="sensor" params="name x:=0 y:=0 z:=0">
<link name="${name}">
<visual>
<origin xyz="${x} ${y} ${z}" />
<geometry><box size="0.01 0.01 0.01" /></geometry>
</visual>
</link>
</xacro:macro>
<!-- 使用默认参数 -->
<xacro:sensor name="laser1" /> <!-- 使用默认 (0,0,0) -->
<xacro:sensor name="laser2" x="0.1" /> <!-- 只覆盖 x 参数 -->
宏的定义方式是通过这个<xacro:macro>标签描述的，还可以像函数一样，设置里边会用到的一些参数，比如这里的A、B、C。
当需要使用这个宏的时候，通过宏名字的标签，来调用，同时要记得把几个参数设置好。
2.4 文件包含
将大型机器人模型分解为多个文件；
<!-- 主文件: robot.xacro -->
<?xml version="1.0"?>
<robot name="my_robot" xmlns:xacro="http://www.ros.org/wiki/xacro">
<!-- 包含其他文件 -->
<xacro:include filename="$(find my_robot_description)/urdf/materials.xacro" />
<xacro:include filename="$(find my_robot_description)/urdf/common_properties.xacro" />
<!-- 使用包含文件中定义的宏 -->
<base />
<!-- 包含带参数的宏文件 -->
<xacro:include filename="$(find my_robot_description)/urdf/wheels.xacro" />
<xacro:four_wheel_drive base_parent="base_link" />
</robot>
2.5 块参数与内容插入
高级宏特性，允许传递xml块；
<!-- 定义接受块参数的宏 -->
<xacro:macro name="enhanced_link" params="name *visual *collision *inertial">
<link name="${name}">
<xacro:insert_block name="visual" />
<xacro:insert_block name="collision" />
<xacro:insert_block name="inertial" />
</link>
</xacro:macro>
<!-- 使用块参数 -->
<xacro:enhanced_link name="custom_link">
<visual>
<geometry><box size="1 0.5 0.2" /></geometry>
<material name="blue" />
</visual>
<collision>
<geometry><box size="1 0.5 0.2" /></geometry>
</collision>
<inertial>
<mass value="10.0" />
<inertia ixx="0.1" ixy="0" ixz="0" iyy="0.1" iyz="0" izz="0.1" />
</inertial>
</xacro:enhanced_link>
2.6 项目结构
一个完整的项目结构如下“
my_robot_description/
├── package.xml
├── CMakeLists.txt
├── urdf/
│ ├── robot.xacro # 主文件
│ ├── materials.xacro # 材质定义
│ ├── sensors/ # 传感器模块
│ │ ├── lidar.xacro
│ │ └── camera.xacro
│ ├── chassis.xacro # 底盘
│ └── wheels.xacro # 轮子定义
├── meshes/ # 3D网格文件
│ └── chassis.dae
└── launch/
└── display.launch.py # 启动文件
三、机器人仿真
创建my_learning_urdf的Python版本的功能包；
pi@NanoPC-T6:~/dev_ws$ cd src
pi@NanoPC-T6:~/dev_ws/src$ ros2 pkg create --build-type ament_python my_learning_gazebo
在包中创建如下文件夹：
urdf：存放机器人模型的URDF或xacro文件；meshes：放置URDF中引用的模型渲染文件；launch：保存相关启动文件；worlds：世界地图；rviz：保存rviz的配置文件。
我们需要修改setup.py文件，添加配置文件：
import os
from glob import glob
...
data_files=[
('share/ament_index/resource_index/packages',
['resource/' + package_name]),
('share/' + package_name, ['package.xml']),
(os.path.join('share', package_name, 'launch'), glob(os.path.join('launch', '*.launch.py'))),
(os.path.join('share', package_name, 'urdf'), glob(os.path.join('urdf', '*.*'))),
(os.path.join('share', package_name, 'urdf/sensors'), glob(os.path.join('urdf/sensors', '*.*'))),
(os.path.join('share', package_name, 'meshes'), glob(os.path.join('meshes', '*.*'))),
(os.path.join('share', package_name, 'worlds'), glob(os.path.join('worlds', '*.*'))),
(os.path.join('share', package_name, 'rviz'), glob(os.path.join('rviz', '*.rviz'))),
],
...
完整的目录结构如下：
zhengyang@ubuntu:~/dev_ws$ tree src/my_learning_gazebo
src/my_learning_gazebo
├── launch
│ ├── load_mbot_camera_into_gazebo.launch.py
│ ├── load_mbot_laser_into_gazebo.launch.py
│ ├── load_mbot_rgbd_into_gazebo.launch.py
│ ├── load_urdf_into_gazebo.launch.py
│ ├── mbot_camera.launch.py
│ ├── mbot_laser.launch.py
│ ├── mbot.launch.py
│ └── mbot_rgbd.launch.py
├── meshes
│ ├── kinect.dae
│ ├── kinect.jpg
│ └── kinect.tga
├── my_learning_gazebo
│ └── __init__.py
├── package.xml
├── resource
│ └── my_learning_gazebo
├── rviz
│ └── urdf_gazebo_config.rviz
├── setup.cfg
├── setup.py
├── urdf
│ ├── mbot_base_gazebo.xacro
│ ├── mbot_gazebo.xacro
│ ├── mbot_with_camera_gazebo.xacro
│ ├── mbot_with_kinect_gazebo.xacro
│ ├── mbot_with_laser_gazebo.xacro
│ ├── mbot_with_rgbd_gazebo.xacro
│ ├── sensors
│ │ ├── camera_gazebo.xacro
│ │ ├── kinect_gazebo.xacro
│ │ ├── lidar_gazebo.xacro
│ │ └── rgbd_gazebo.xacro
│ └── two_wheeled_robot_nav2.urdf
└── worlds
├── empty_world.model
└── neighborhood.world
接下来我们只介绍部分源码，完整代码下载《src/my_learning_gazebo》。
3.1 完善机器人仿真模型
3.1.1 urdf/mbot_gazebo.xacro
在urdf下新建文件mbot_gazebo.xacro；
<?xml version="1.0"?>
<robot name="mbot" xmlns:xacro="http://www.ros.org/wiki/xacro">
<xacro:include filename="$(find my_learning_gazebo)/urdf/mbot_base_gazebo.xacro" />
<xacro:mbot_base_gazebo/>
</robot>
在urdf下新建文件mbot_base_gazebo.xacro；
点击查看详情
<?xml version="1.0"?>
<robot name="mbot" xmlns:xacro="http://www.ros.org/wiki/xacro">
<!-- PROPERTY LIST -->
<xacro:property name="M_PI" value="3.1415926"/>
<xacro:property name="base_mass" value="1" />
<xacro:property name="base_radius" value="0.20"/>
<xacro:property name="base_length" value="0.16"/>
<xacro:property name="wheel_mass" value="0.2" />
<xacro:property name="wheel_radius" value="0.06"/>
<xacro:property name="wheel_length" value="0.025"/>
<xacro:property name="wheel_joint_y" value="0.19"/>
<xacro:property name="wheel_joint_z" value="0.05"/>
<xacro:property name="caster_mass" value="0.2" />
<xacro:property name="caster_radius" value="0.015"/> <!-- wheel_radius - ( base_length/2 - wheel_joint_z) -->
<xacro:property name="caster_joint_x" value="0.18"/>
<!-- Defining the colors used in this robot -->
<material name="yellow">
<color rgba="1 0.4 0 1"/>
</material>
<material name="black">
<color rgba="0 0 0 0.95"/>
</material>
<material name="gray">
<color rgba="0.75 0.75 0.75 1"/>
</material>
<!-- Macro for inertia matrix -->
<xacro:macro name="sphere_inertial_matrix" params="m r">
<inertial>
<mass value="${m}" />
<inertia ixx="${2*m*r*r/5}" ixy="0" ixz="0"
iyy="${2*m*r*r/5}" iyz="0"
izz="${2*m*r*r/5}" />
</inertial>
</xacro:macro>
<xacro:macro name="cylinder_inertial_matrix" params="m r h">
<inertial>
<mass value="${m}" />
<inertia ixx="${m*(3*r*r+h*h)/12}" ixy = "0" ixz = "0"
iyy="${m*(3*r*r+h*h)/12}" iyz = "0"
izz="${m*r*r/2}" />
</inertial>
</xacro:macro>
<!-- Macro for robot wheel -->
<xacro:macro name="wheel" params="prefix reflect">
<joint name="${prefix}_wheel_joint" type="continuous">
<origin xyz="0 ${reflect*wheel_joint_y} ${-wheel_joint_z}" rpy="0 0 0"/>
<parent link="base_link"/>
<child link="${prefix}_wheel_link"/>
<axis xyz="0 1 0"/>
</joint>
<link name="${prefix}_wheel_link">
<visual>
<origin xyz="0 0 0" rpy="${M_PI/2} 0 0" />
<geometry>
<cylinder radius="${wheel_radius}" length = "${wheel_length}"/>
</geometry>
<material name="gray" />
</visual>
<collision>
<origin xyz="0 0 0" rpy="${M_PI/2} 0 0" />
<geometry>
<cylinder radius="${wheel_radius}" length = "${wheel_length}"/>
</geometry>
</collision>
<xacro:cylinder_inertial_matrix m="${wheel_mass}" r="${wheel_radius}" h="${wheel_length}" />
</link>
<gazebo reference="${prefix}_wheel_link">
<material>Gazebo/Gray</material>
<mu1>100000.0</mu1>
<mu2>100000.0</mu2>
</gazebo>
<!-- Transmission is important to link the joints and the controller -->
<transmission name="${prefix}_wheel_joint_trans">
<type>transmission_interface/SimpleTransmission</type>
<joint name="${prefix}_wheel_joint" >
<hardwareInterface>hardware_interface/VelocityJointInterface</hardwareInterface>
</joint>
<actuator name="${prefix}_wheel_joint_motor">
<hardwareInterface>hardware_interface/VelocityJointInterface</hardwareInterface>
<mechanicalReduction>1</mechanicalReduction>
</actuator>
</transmission>
</xacro:macro>
<!-- Macro for robot caster -->
<xacro:macro name="caster" params="prefix reflect">
<joint name="${prefix}_caster_joint" type="fixed">
<origin xyz="${reflect*caster_joint_x} 0 ${-(base_length/2 + caster_radius)}" rpy="0 0 0"/>
<parent link="base_link"/>
<child link="${prefix}_caster_link"/>
</joint>
<link name="${prefix}_caster_link">
<visual>
<origin xyz="0 0 0" rpy="0 0 0"/>
<geometry>
<sphere radius="${caster_radius}" />
</geometry>
<material name="black" />
</visual>
<collision>
<origin xyz="0 0 0" rpy="0 0 0"/>
<geometry>
<sphere radius="${caster_radius}" />
</geometry>
</collision>
<xacro:sphere_inertial_matrix m="${caster_mass}" r="${caster_radius}" />
</link>
<gazebo reference="${prefix}_caster_link">
<material>Gazebo/Black</material>
</gazebo>
</xacro:macro>
<xacro:macro name="mbot_base_gazebo">
<link name="base_footprint">
<visual>
<origin xyz="0 0 0" rpy="0 0 0" />
<geometry>
<box size="0.001 0.001 0.001" />
</geometry>
</visual>
</link>
<gazebo reference="base_footprint">
<turnGravityOff>false</turnGravityOff>
</gazebo>
<joint name="base_footprint_joint" type="fixed">
<origin xyz="0 0 ${base_length/2 + caster_radius*2}" rpy="0 0 0" />
<parent link="base_footprint"/>
<child link="base_link" />
</joint>
<link name="base_link">
<visual>
<origin xyz=" 0 0 0" rpy="0 0 0" />
<geometry>
<cylinder length="${base_length}" radius="${base_radius}"/>
</geometry>
<material name="yellow" />
</visual>
<collision>
<origin xyz=" 0 0 0" rpy="0 0 0" />
<geometry>
<cylinder length="${base_length}" radius="${base_radius}"/>
</geometry>
</collision>
<xacro:cylinder_inertial_matrix m="${base_mass}" r="${base_radius}" h="${base_length}" />
</link>
<gazebo reference="base_link">
<material>Gazebo/Blue</material>
</gazebo>
<xacro:wheel prefix="left" reflect="1"/>
<xacro:wheel prefix="right" reflect="-1"/>
<xacro:caster prefix="front" reflect="-1"/>
<xacro:caster prefix="back" reflect="1"/>
<!-- controller -->
<gazebo>
<plugin name="differential_drive_controller"
filename="libgazebo_ros_diff_drive.so">
<update_rate>30</update_rate>
<left_joint>left_wheel_joint</left_joint>
<right_joint>right_wheel_joint</right_joint>
<wheel_separation>${wheel_joint_y*2}</wheel_separation>
<wheel_diameter>${2*wheel_radius}</wheel_diameter>
<max_wheel_torque>20</max_wheel_torque>
<max_wheel_acceleration>1.0</max_wheel_acceleration>
<command_topic>cmd_vel</command_topic>
<publish_odom>true</publish_odom>
<publish_odom_tf>true</publish_odom_tf>
<publish_wheel_tf>true</publish_wheel_tf>
<odometry_topic>odom</odometry_topic>
<odometry_frame>odom</odometry_frame>
<robot_base_frame>base_footprint</robot_base_frame>
<odometry_source>1</odometry_source>
</plugin>
</gazebo>
</xacro:macro>
</robot>
这个模型是基于《ROS2之URDF建模》中的mbot_base.urdf模型文件升级来的，构建步骤如下：
- 完善物理参数：第一步是确保每一个
link都有惯性参数和碰撞属性，因为Gazebo是物理仿真平台，必要的物理参数是一定需要的； - 添加
Gazebo标签：第二步是为link添加gazebo标签，主要是为了可以在gazebo中渲染每一个link的颜色，因为URDF中的颜色系统和gazebo中的不同，所以得做一步这样的冗余配置； - 配置传动装置：第三步是要给运动的
joint配置传动装置，可以理解为仿真了一个电机； - 添加控制器插件：第四步，要添加一个
gazebo的控制器插件，小车是差速控制的，那就添加差速控制器插件，这样在不同角度下两个电机的速度分配，就可以交给控制器插件来完成了。
3.1.2 worlds/neighborhood.world
在worlds目录下新建neighborhood.world文件：
点击查看详情
<?xml version="1.0"?>
<sdf version='1.6'>
<world name='default'>
<!-- Here is where we place objects inside our world -->
<model name='ground_plane'>
<static>1</static>
<link name='link'>
<collision name='collision'>
<geometry>
<plane>
<normal>0 0 1</normal>
<size>100 100</size>
</plane>
</geometry>
<surface>
<friction>
<ode>
<mu>100</mu>
<mu2>50</mu2>
</ode>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
</friction>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
</surface>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
</collision>
<visual name='visual'>
<cast_shadows>0</cast_shadows>
<geometry>
<plane>
<normal>0 0 1</normal>
<size>100 100</size>
</plane>
</geometry>
<material>
<script>
<uri>file://media/materials/scripts/gazebo.material</uri>
<name>Gazebo/Grey</name>
</script>
</material>
</visual>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
</model>
<model name='asphalt_plane'>
<static>1</static>
<link name='link'>
<collision name='collision'>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>20 20 0.1</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<ode>
<mu>100</mu>
<mu2>50</mu2>
</ode>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<visual name='visual'>
<cast_shadows>0</cast_shadows>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>20 20 0.1</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<material>
<script>
<uri>model://asphalt_plane/materials/scripts</uri>
<uri>model://asphalt_plane/materials/textures</uri>
<name>vrc/asphalt</name>
</script>
</material>
</visual>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<pose frame=''>-10.1692 -7.43707 0 0 -0 0</pose>
</model>
<model name='asphalt_plane_clone'>
<static>1</static>
<link name='link'>
<collision name='collision'>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>20 20 0.1</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<ode>
<mu>100</mu>
<mu2>50</mu2>
</ode>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<visual name='visual'>
<cast_shadows>0</cast_shadows>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>20 20 0.1</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<material>
<script>
<uri>model://asphalt_plane/materials/scripts</uri>
<uri>model://asphalt_plane/materials/textures</uri>
<name>vrc/asphalt</name>
</script>
</material>
</visual>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<pose frame=''>-10.1864 12.6443 0 0 -0 0</pose>
</model>
<model name='asphalt_plane_clone_clone'>
<static>1</static>
<link name='link'>
<collision name='collision'>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>20 20 0.1</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<ode>
<mu>100</mu>
<mu2>50</mu2>
</ode>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<visual name='visual'>
<cast_shadows>0</cast_shadows>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>20 20 0.1</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<material>
<script>
<uri>model://asphalt_plane/materials/scripts</uri>
<uri>model://asphalt_plane/materials/textures</uri>
<name>vrc/asphalt</name>
</script>
</material>
</visual>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<pose frame=''>8.71597 12.1785 0 0 -0 0</pose>
</model>
<model name='asphalt_plane_clone_clone_0'>
<static>1</static>
<link name='link'>
<collision name='collision'>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>20 20 0.1</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<ode>
<mu>100</mu>
<mu2>50</mu2>
</ode>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<visual name='visual'>
<cast_shadows>0</cast_shadows>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>20 20 0.1</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<material>
<script>
<uri>model://asphalt_plane/materials/scripts</uri>
<uri>model://asphalt_plane/materials/textures</uri>
<name>vrc/asphalt</name>
</script>
</material>
</visual>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<pose frame=''>8.60996 -7.34898 0 0 -0 0</pose>
</model>
<model name='post_office'>
<static>1</static>
<link name='link'>
<collision name='collision'>
<geometry>
<mesh>
<uri>model://post_office/meshes/post_office.dae</uri>
</mesh>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<visual name='visual'>
<geometry>
<mesh>
<uri>model://post_office/meshes/post_office.dae</uri>
</mesh>
</geometry>
</visual>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<pose frame=''>13.5893 -15.2061 0 0 -0 0</pose>
</model>
<model name='House 1'>
<static>1</static>
<link name='link'>
<collision name='collision'>
<geometry>
<mesh>
<uri>model://house_1/meshes/house_1.dae</uri>
<scale>1.5 1.5 1.5</scale>
</mesh>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<visual name='visual'>
<geometry>
<mesh>
<uri>model://house_1/meshes/house_1.dae</uri>
<scale>1.5 1.5 1.5</scale>
</mesh>
</geometry>
<material>
<script>
<uri>model://house_1/materials/scripts</uri>
<uri>model://house_1/materials/textures</uri>
<name>House_1/Diffuse</name>
</script>
<shader type='normal_map_tangent_space'>
<normal_map>House_1_Normal.png</normal_map>
</shader>
</material>
</visual>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<pose frame=''>11.3349 26.7368 0 0 -0 0</pose>
</model>
<model name='House 2'>
<static>1</static>
<link name='link'>
<collision name='collision'>
<geometry>
<mesh>
<uri>model://house_2/meshes/house_2.dae</uri>
<scale>1.5 1.5 1.5</scale>
</mesh>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<visual name='visual'>
<geometry>
<mesh>
<uri>model://house_2/meshes/house_2.dae</uri>
<scale>1.5 1.5 1.5</scale>
</mesh>
</geometry>
<material>
<script>
<uri>model://house_2/materials/scripts</uri>
<uri>model://house_2/materials/textures</uri>
<uri>model://house_1/materials/textures</uri>
<name>House_2/Diffuse</name>
</script>
<shader type='normal_map_tangent_space'>
<normal_map>model://house_1/materials/textures/House_1_Normal.png</normal_map>
</shader>
</material>
</visual>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<pose frame=''>-15.2439 -13.9588 0 0 -0 0</pose>
</model>
<model name='House 3'>
<static>1</static>
<link name='link'>
<collision name='collision'>
<geometry>
<mesh>
<uri>model://house_3/meshes/house_3.dae</uri>
<scale>1.5 1.5 1.5</scale>
</mesh>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<visual name='visual'>
<geometry>
<mesh>
<uri>model://house_3/meshes/house_3.dae</uri>
<scale>1.5 1.5 1.5</scale>
</mesh>
</geometry>
<material>
<script>
<uri>model://house_3/materials/scripts</uri>
<uri>model://house_3/materials/textures</uri>
<uri>model://house_1/materials/textures</uri>
<name>House_3/Diffuse</name>
</script>
<shader type='normal_map_tangent_space'>
<normal_map>model://house_1/materials/textures/House_1_Normal.png</normal_map>
</shader>
</material>
</visual>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<pose frame=''>-12.3159 24.012 0 0 -0 0</pose>
</model>
<model name='grey_wall'>
<static>1</static>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>0 0 1.4 0 -0 0</pose>
<collision name='collision'>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>7.5 0.2 2.8</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<visual name='visual'>
<cast_shadows>0</cast_shadows>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>7.5 0.2 2.8</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<material>
<script>
<uri>model://grey_wall/materials/scripts</uri>
<uri>model://grey_wall/materials/textures</uri>
<name>vrc/grey_wall</name>
</script>
</material>
</visual>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<pose frame=''>-4.8114 -17.6626 0 0 -0 0</pose>
</model>
<model name='grey_wall_clone'>
<static>1</static>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>0 0 1.4 0 -0 0</pose>
<collision name='collision'>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>7.5 0.2 2.8</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<visual name='visual'>
<cast_shadows>0</cast_shadows>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>7.5 0.2 2.8</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<material>
<script>
<uri>model://grey_wall/materials/scripts</uri>
<uri>model://grey_wall/materials/textures</uri>
<name>vrc/grey_wall</name>
</script>
</material>
</visual>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<pose frame=''>1.84642 -17.6367 0 0 -0 0</pose>
</model>
<model name='grey_wall_clone_0'>
<static>1</static>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>0 0 1.4 0 -0 0</pose>
<collision name='collision'>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>7.5 0.2 2.8</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<visual name='visual'>
<cast_shadows>0</cast_shadows>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>7.5 0.2 2.8</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<material>
<script>
<uri>model://grey_wall/materials/scripts</uri>
<uri>model://grey_wall/materials/textures</uri>
<name>vrc/grey_wall</name>
</script>
</material>
</visual>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<pose frame=''>4.62088 -17.6372 0 0 -0 0</pose>
</model>
<model name='grey_wall_clone_clone'>
<static>1</static>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>0 0 1.4 0 -0 0</pose>
<collision name='collision'>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>7.5 0.2 2.8</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<visual name='visual'>
<cast_shadows>0</cast_shadows>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>7.5 0.2 2.8</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<material>
<script>
<uri>model://grey_wall/materials/scripts</uri>
<uri>model://grey_wall/materials/textures</uri>
<name>vrc/grey_wall</name>
</script>
</material>
</visual>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<pose frame=''>-4.48764 26.0166 0 0 -0 0</pose>
</model>
<model name='grey_wall_clone_clone_clone'>
<static>1</static>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>0 0 1.4 0 -0 0</pose>
<collision name='collision'>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>7.5 0.2 2.8</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<visual name='visual'>
<cast_shadows>0</cast_shadows>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>7.5 0.2 2.8</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<material>
<script>
<uri>model://grey_wall/materials/scripts</uri>
<uri>model://grey_wall/materials/textures</uri>
<name>vrc/grey_wall</name>
</script>
</material>
</visual>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<pose frame=''>16.935 15.0582 0 0 -0 0</pose>
</model>
<model name='grey_wall_clone_clone_clone_clone'>
<static>1</static>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>0 0 1.4 0 -0 0</pose>
<collision name='collision'>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>7.5 0.2 2.8</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
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</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<torsional>
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</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<visual name='visual'>
<cast_shadows>0</cast_shadows>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>7.5 0.2 2.8</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<material>
<script>
<uri>model://grey_wall/materials/scripts</uri>
<uri>model://grey_wall/materials/textures</uri>
<name>vrc/grey_wall</name>
</script>
</material>
</visual>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
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<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<pose frame=''>18.767 9.41754 0 0 0 -1.56734</pose>
</model>
<model name='grey_wall_clone_clone_clone_clone_0'>
<static>1</static>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>0 0 1.4 0 -0 0</pose>
<collision name='collision'>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>7.5 0.2 2.8</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
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</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<torsional>
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</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<visual name='visual'>
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<geometry>
<box>
<size>7.5 0.2 2.8</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<material>
<script>
<uri>model://grey_wall/materials/scripts</uri>
<uri>model://grey_wall/materials/textures</uri>
<name>vrc/grey_wall</name>
</script>
</material>
</visual>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<pose frame=''>18.7963 2.45369 0 0 0 -1.56734</pose>
</model>
<model name='grey_wall_clone_clone_clone_clone_1'>
<static>1</static>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>0 0 1.4 0 -0 0</pose>
<collision name='collision'>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>7.5 0.2 2.8</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
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</contact>
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<friction>
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<ode/>
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</surface>
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<visual name='visual'>
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<geometry>
<box>
<size>7.5 0.2 2.8</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<material>
<script>
<uri>model://grey_wall/materials/scripts</uri>
<uri>model://grey_wall/materials/textures</uri>
<name>vrc/grey_wall</name>
</script>
</material>
</visual>
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<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<pose frame=''>18.8058 -4.41342 0 0 0 -1.56734</pose>
</model>
<model name='grey_wall_clone_clone_clone_clone_2'>
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<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>0 0 1.4 0 -0 0</pose>
<collision name='collision'>
<geometry>
<box>
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</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
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<visual name='visual'>
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<geometry>
<box>
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</box>
</geometry>
<material>
<script>
<uri>model://grey_wall/materials/scripts</uri>
<uri>model://grey_wall/materials/textures</uri>
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</script>
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<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<pose frame=''>18.8343 -11.7301 0 0 0 -1.56734</pose>
</model>
<!-- State elements are used in log files to record the current state of the simulation -->
<state world_name='default'>
<sim_time>0 0</sim_time>
<real_time>1508 791172746</real_time>
<wall_time>1559146081 981649784</wall_time>
<iterations>1104051</iterations>
<model name='Construction Barrel'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
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<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
<acceleration>-2.9967 2.03365 -0.794686 1.20082 -1.20717 -0.001857</acceleration>
<wrench>-1498.35 1016.83 -397.343 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
</model>
<model name='Construction Barrel_clone'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
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<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
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<wrench>944.989 -1781.11 -321.301 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
</model>
<model name='Construction Barrel_clone_0'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>9.88762 -5.55241 0.049999 3e-06 -0 9.3e-05</pose>
<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
<acceleration>2.07604 -3.61569 -0.551712 2.75954 -1.103 0.00963</acceleration>
<wrench>1038.02 -1807.85 -275.856 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
</model>
<model name='Construction Barrel_clone_1'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>-19.433 18.986 0.049999 3e-06 -0 9.5e-05</pose>
<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
<acceleration>1.01626 -3.19015 -0.947766 -1.44886 0.60977 -3.13192</acceleration>
<wrench>508.13 -1595.08 -473.883 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
</model>
<model name='Construction Barrel_clone_2'>
<pose frame=''>-19.5121 20.6998 0.049999 3e-06 -0 9.5e-05</pose>
<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>-19.5121 20.6998 0.049999 3e-06 -0 9.5e-05</pose>
<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
<acceleration>1.77033 -3.51744 -0.722185 -0.630679 -1.27745 -3.13259</acceleration>
<wrench>885.165 -1758.72 -361.092 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
</model>
<model name='Construction Barrel_clone_3'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
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<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
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<wrench>256.296 -150.297 -4523.5 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
</model>
<model name='Construction Barrel_clone_4'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>-20.4876 -9.72099 0.030757 -0.000752 -0.060378 0.011096</pose>
<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
<acceleration>-0.114927 -0.390542 -12.0564 0.395765 -0.295565 2.86504</acceleration>
<wrench>-57.4634 -195.271 -6028.21 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
</model>
<model name='Dumpster'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>-5.92856 -15.7047 0.051378 -6e-06 -3e-06 0.000223</pose>
<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
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</model>
<model name='House 1'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
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</model>
<model name='House 2'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
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<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
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</model>
<model name='House 3'>
<pose frame=''>-12.3159 24.012 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>-12.3159 24.012 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
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</model>
<model name='asphalt_plane'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
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</model>
<model name='asphalt_plane_clone'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
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<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
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</model>
<model name='asphalt_plane_clone_clone'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
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</model>
<model name='asphalt_plane_clone_clone_0'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
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<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
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<wrench>0 0 0 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
</model>
<model name='grey_wall'>
<pose frame=''>-4.8114 -17.6626 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>-4.8114 -17.6626 1.4 0 -0 0</pose>
<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
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</link>
</model>
<model name='grey_wall_clone'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
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<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
<acceleration>0 0 0 0 -0 0</acceleration>
<wrench>0 0 0 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
</model>
<model name='grey_wall_clone_0'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>4.62088 -17.6372 1.4 0 -0 0</pose>
<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
<acceleration>0 0 0 0 -0 0</acceleration>
<wrench>0 0 0 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
</model>
<model name='grey_wall_clone_clone'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>-4.48764 26.0166 1.4 0 -0 0</pose>
<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
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</link>
</model>
<model name='grey_wall_clone_clone_clone'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
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</link>
</model>
<model name='grey_wall_clone_clone_clone_clone'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
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</model>
<model name='grey_wall_clone_clone_clone_clone_0'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
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<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
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</link>
</model>
<model name='grey_wall_clone_clone_clone_clone_1'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
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</link>
</model>
<model name='grey_wall_clone_clone_clone_clone_2'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
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<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
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</model>
<model name='ground_plane'>
<pose frame=''>0 0 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>0 0 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
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</link>
</model>
<model name='jersey_barrier'>
<pose frame=''>16.3274 -5.65655 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>16.3274 -5.65655 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
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</link>
</model>
<model name='jersey_barrier_clone'>
<pose frame=''>15.8486 0.798921 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>15.8486 0.798921 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
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</link>
</model>
<model name='jersey_barrier_clone_0'>
<pose frame=''>11.3081 0.801131 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
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</model>
<model name='jersey_barrier_clone_1'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
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</model>
<model name='jersey_barrier_clone_2'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
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</model>
<model name='jersey_barrier_clone_3'>
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</model>
<model name='jersey_barrier_clone_4'>
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</model>
<model name='jersey_barrier_clone_5'>
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</link>
</model>
<model name='jersey_barrier_clone_5_clone'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
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</model>
<model name='mud_box'>
<pose frame=''>14.6137 5.86275 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>14.6137 5.86275 0 0 -0 0</pose>
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</link>
</model>
<model name='mud_box_clone'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
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</model>
<model name='number1'>
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<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>-7.39232 -9.13969 0.4 0 -0 0</pose>
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</link>
</model>
<model name='number2'>
<pose frame=''>-9.34625 21.2817 0.4 0 -0 0</pose>
<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>-9.34625 21.2817 0.4 0 -0 0</pose>
<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
<acceleration>0 0 0 0 -0 0</acceleration>
<wrench>0 0 0 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
</model>
<model name='number3'>
<pose frame=''>11.0389 20.3497 0.4 0 -0 0</pose>
<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>11.0389 20.3497 0.4 0 -0 0</pose>
<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
<acceleration>0 0 0 0 -0 0</acceleration>
<wrench>0 0 0 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
</model>
<model name='osrf_first_office'>
<pose frame=''>-24.986 6.46271 0 0 -0 1.56899</pose>
<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>-24.986 6.46271 0 0 -0 1.56899</pose>
<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
<acceleration>0 0 0 0 -0 0</acceleration>
<wrench>0 0 0 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
</model>
<model name='playground'>
<pose frame=''>12.8763 5.61106 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>12.8763 5.61106 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
<acceleration>0 0 0 0 -0 0</acceleration>
<wrench>0 0 0 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
</model>
<model name='post_office'>
<pose frame=''>13.5893 -15.2061 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>13.5893 -15.2061 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
<acceleration>0 0 0 0 -0 0</acceleration>
<wrench>0 0 0 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
</model>
<model name='prius_hybrid'>
<pose frame=''>1.05252 24.4802 0.011641 -2e-06 0 0.003052</pose>
<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='chassis'>
<pose frame=''>1.05252 24.4802 0.011641 -2e-06 0 0.003052</pose>
<velocity>8e-06 9e-06 2.1e-05 -3e-06 -0 5e-06</velocity>
<acceleration>-0 -0 -0 0 -0 0</acceleration>
<wrench>-6e-06 -2.2e-05 -0 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
<link name='front_left_wheel'>
<pose frame=''>1.81682 23.0725 0.311646 -0.028633 0.035341 0.419054</pose>
<velocity>1.5e-05 1.4e-05 3.2e-05 -4.5e-05 4.7e-05 0.000776</velocity>
<acceleration>-0 -0 0 0 -0 0</acceleration>
<wrench>-0 -0 0 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
<link name='front_right_wheel'>
<pose frame=''>0.296832 23.0679 0.311646 -0.015085 0.031929 0.376756</pose>
<velocity>1.5e-05 7e-06 3.1e-05 -2.2e-05 4.7e-05 0.000636</velocity>
<acceleration>-0 -0 0 0 -0 0</acceleration>
<wrench>-0 -0 0 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
<link name='rear_axle'>
<pose frame=''>1.0481 25.9302 0.311637 -2e-06 -4e-06 0.003052</pose>
<velocity>1e-06 1e-05 1.5e-05 -4e-06 -4e-06 5e-06</velocity>
<acceleration>-0 -0 0 -0.003541 -1.1e-05 0</acceleration>
<wrench>-0 -0 0 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
<link name='rear_left_wheel'>
<pose frame=''>1.8341 25.9326 0.311647 -0.036135 -3e-06 0.003052</pose>
<velocity>1e-06 1.4e-05 2.5e-05 -4.5e-05 -1e-06 5e-06</velocity>
<acceleration>0 -0 0 0 -0 0</acceleration>
<wrench>0 -0 0 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
<link name='rear_right_wheel'>
<pose frame=''>0.262103 25.9278 0.311647 -0.020938 8e-06 0.003052</pose>
<velocity>2e-06 7e-06 2.5e-05 -2.2e-05 2e-06 5e-06</velocity>
<acceleration>-0 -0 -0 0 -0 0</acceleration>
<wrench>-0 -0 -0 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
<link name='steering_wheel'>
<pose frame=''>1.41017 23.8539 0.997957 -0.000178 1.30202 1.57375</pose>
<velocity>1.1e-05 1.4e-05 2.3e-05 -3e-06 -0 5e-06</velocity>
<acceleration>-0 -0 0 0 1e-06 0</acceleration>
<wrench>-0 -0 0 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
</model>
<model name='radio_tower'>
<pose frame=''>-26.4658 -12.9476 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>-26.4658 -12.9476 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
<acceleration>0 0 0 0 -0 0</acceleration>
<wrench>0 0 0 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
</model>
<model name='suv'>
<pose frame=''>-4.32179 23.343 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<scale>1 1 1</scale>
<link name='link'>
<pose frame=''>-4.32179 23.343 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<velocity>0 0 0 0 -0 0</velocity>
<acceleration>0 0 0 0 -0 0</acceleration>
<wrench>0 0 0 0 -0 0</wrench>
</link>
</model>
<light name='sun'>
<pose frame=''>0 0 10 0 -0 0</pose>
</light>
</state>
<model name='prius_hybrid'>
<pose frame=''>1.0474 24.4712 0.03 0 -0 0</pose>
<link name='chassis'>
<inertial>
<mass>1326</mass>
<pose frame=''>0 -0.266 0.48 0 -0 0</pose>
<inertia>
<ixx>2581.13</ixx>
<ixy>0</ixy>
<iyy>591.308</iyy>
<ixz>0</ixz>
<iyz>0</iyz>
<izz>2681.95</izz>
</inertia>
</inertial>
<visual name='chassis_visual'>
<geometry>
<mesh>
<uri>model://prius_hybrid/meshes/Hybrid.obj</uri>
<scale>0.01 0.01 0.01</scale>
<submesh>
<name>Hybrid</name>
<center>0</center>
</submesh>
</mesh>
</geometry>
</visual>
<visual name='interior_visual'>
<geometry>
<mesh>
<uri>model://prius_hybrid/meshes/Hybrid.obj</uri>
<scale>0.01 0.01 0.01</scale>
<submesh>
<name>Hybrid_Interior</name>
<center>0</center>
</submesh>
</mesh>
</geometry>
</visual>
<visual name='windows_visual'>
<geometry>
<mesh>
<uri>model://prius_hybrid/meshes/Hybrid.obj</uri>
<scale>0.01 0.01 0.01</scale>
<submesh>
<name>Hybrid_Windows</name>
<center>0</center>
</submesh>
</mesh>
</geometry>
</visual>
<collision name='chassis'>
<pose frame=''>0 0.05 0.625 0 -0 0</pose>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>1.7526 2.1 0.95</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<collision name='front_bumper'>
<pose frame=''>0 -2 0.458488 0 -0 0</pose>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>1.33728 0.48 0.566691</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<collision name='hood'>
<pose frame=''>0 -1.90084 0.676305 0.341247 -0 0</pose>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>1.59797 0.493107 0.265468</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<collision name='windshield'>
<pose frame=''>0 -0.875105 1.03227 0.335476 -0 0</pose>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>1.16838 1.65425 0.272347</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<collision name='top_front'>
<pose frame=''>0 0.161236 1.38604 0.13503 -0 0</pose>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>1.27915 0.625988 0.171868</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<collision name='top_rear'>
<pose frame=''>0 0.817696 1.36007 -0.068997 0 0</pose>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>1.28513 0.771189 0.226557</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<collision name='rear_window'>
<pose frame=''>0 1.64053 1.17513 -0.262017 0 0</pose>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>1.26785 1.11634 0.244286</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<collision name='trunk'>
<pose frame=''>0 1.63706 0.88818 0 -0 0</pose>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>1.78806 1.13899 0.482746</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<collision name='back_bumper'>
<pose frame=''>0 2.05445 0.57787 0 -0 0</pose>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>1.78165 0.512093 0.581427</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<link name='steering_wheel'>
<pose frame=''>0.357734 -0.627868 0.988243 -1.3021 0 0</pose>
<inertial>
<mass>1</mass>
<inertia>
<ixx>0.145833</ixx>
<ixy>0</ixy>
<ixz>0</ixz>
<iyy>0.145833</iyy>
<iyz>0</iyz>
<izz>0.125</izz>
</inertia>
</inertial>
<collision name='collision'>
<geometry>
<cylinder>
<radius>0.178172</radius>
<length>0.041845</length>
</cylinder>
</geometry>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode>
<min_depth>0.003</min_depth>
</ode>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
</collision>
<visual name='visual'>
<pose frame=''>0 0 0 1.3021 -0 0</pose>
<geometry>
<mesh>
<uri>model://prius_hybrid/meshes/Hybrid.obj</uri>
<scale>0.01 0.01 0.01</scale>
<submesh>
<name>Steering_Wheel</name>
<center>1</center>
</submesh>
</mesh>
</geometry>
</visual>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<link name='front_left_wheel'>
<pose frame=''>0.76 -1.41 0.3 0 -0 0</pose>
<inertial>
<mass>11</mass>
<inertia>
<ixx>0.586312</ixx>
<ixy>0</ixy>
<iyy>0.335529</iyy>
<ixz>0</ixz>
<iyz>0</iyz>
<izz>0.335529</izz>
</inertia>
</inertial>
<visual name='visual'>
<pose frame=''>0.04 0 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<geometry>
<mesh>
<uri>model://prius_hybrid/meshes/Hybrid.obj</uri>
<scale>0.01 0.01 0.01</scale>
<submesh>
<name>Wheel_Front_Left_</name>
<center>1</center>
</submesh>
</mesh>
</geometry>
</visual>
<collision name='collision'>
<pose frame=''>0 0 0 3.14159 1.57079 3.14159</pose>
<geometry>
<sphere>
<radius>0.31265</radius>
</sphere>
</geometry>
<surface>
<friction>
<ode>
<mu>0.9</mu>
<mu2>0.9</mu2>
<slip1>0</slip1>
<slip2>0</slip2>
</ode>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
</friction>
<contact>
<ode>
<min_depth>0.001</min_depth>
<kp>1e+09</kp>
</ode>
</contact>
<bounce/>
</surface>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
</collision>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<link name='front_right_wheel'>
<pose frame=''>-0.76 -1.41 0.3 0 -0 0</pose>
<inertial>
<mass>11</mass>
<inertia>
<ixx>0.586312</ixx>
<ixy>0</ixy>
<iyy>0.335529</iyy>
<ixz>0</ixz>
<iyz>0</iyz>
<izz>0.335529</izz>
</inertia>
</inertial>
<visual name='visual'>
<pose frame=''>-0.04 0 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<pose frame=''>0 0 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<geometry>
<mesh>
<uri>model://prius_hybrid/meshes/Hybrid.obj</uri>
<scale>0.01 0.01 0.01</scale>
<submesh>
<name>Wheel_Front_Right</name>
<center>1</center>
</submesh>
</mesh>
</geometry>
</visual>
<collision name='collision'>
<pose frame=''>0 0 0 3.14159 1.57079 3.14159</pose>
<geometry>
<sphere>
<radius>0.31265</radius>
</sphere>
</geometry>
<surface>
<friction>
<ode>
<mu>0.9</mu>
<mu2>0.9</mu2>
<slip1>0</slip1>
<slip2>0</slip2>
</ode>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
</friction>
<contact>
<ode>
<min_depth>0.001</min_depth>
<kp>1e+09</kp>
</ode>
</contact>
<bounce/>
</surface>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
</collision>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<link name='rear_left_wheel'>
<pose frame=''>0.786 1.45 0.3 0 -0 0</pose>
<inertial>
<mass>11</mass>
<inertia>
<ixx>0.586312</ixx>
<ixy>0</ixy>
<iyy>0.335529</iyy>
<ixz>0</ixz>
<iyz>0</iyz>
<izz>0.335529</izz>
</inertia>
</inertial>
<visual name='visual'>
<pose frame=''>0.04 0 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<geometry>
<mesh>
<uri>model://prius_hybrid/meshes/Hybrid.obj</uri>
<scale>0.01 0.01 0.01</scale>
<submesh>
<name>Wheel_Front_Left_</name>
<center>1</center>
</submesh>
</mesh>
</geometry>
</visual>
<collision name='collision'>
<pose frame=''>0 0 0 3.14159 1.57079 3.14159</pose>
<geometry>
<sphere>
<radius>0.31265</radius>
</sphere>
</geometry>
<surface>
<friction>
<ode>
<mu>1.1</mu>
<mu2>1.1</mu2>
<slip1>0</slip1>
<slip2>0</slip2>
</ode>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
</friction>
<contact>
<ode>
<min_depth>0.001</min_depth>
<kp>1e+09</kp>
</ode>
</contact>
<bounce/>
</surface>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
</collision>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<link name='rear_right_wheel'>
<pose frame=''>-0.786 1.45 0.3 0 -0 0</pose>
<inertial>
<mass>11</mass>
<inertia>
<ixx>0.586312</ixx>
<ixy>0</ixy>
<iyy>0.335529</iyy>
<ixz>0</ixz>
<iyz>0</iyz>
<izz>0.335529</izz>
</inertia>
</inertial>
<visual name='visual'>
<pose frame=''>-0.04 0 0 0 -0 0</pose>
<geometry>
<mesh>
<uri>model://prius_hybrid/meshes/Hybrid.obj</uri>
<scale>0.01 0.01 0.01</scale>
<submesh>
<name>Wheel_Front_Right</name>
<center>1</center>
</submesh>
</mesh>
</geometry>
</visual>
<collision name='collision'>
<pose frame=''>0 0 0 3.14159 1.57079 3.14159</pose>
<geometry>
<sphere>
<radius>0.31265</radius>
</sphere>
</geometry>
<surface>
<friction>
<ode>
<mu>1.1</mu>
<mu2>1.1</mu2>
<slip1>0</slip1>
<slip2>0</slip2>
</ode>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
</friction>
<contact>
<ode>
<min_depth>0.001</min_depth>
<kp>1e+09</kp>
</ode>
</contact>
<bounce/>
</surface>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
</collision>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<joint name='front_left_combined_joint' type='universal'>
<pose frame=''>0 0 0 -0.087266 0 0</pose>
<child>front_left_wheel</child>
<parent>chassis</parent>
<axis>
<xyz>0 0 1</xyz>
<limit>
<lower>-0.8727</lower>
<upper>0.8727</upper>
</limit>
<use_parent_model_frame>0</use_parent_model_frame>
<dynamics>
<spring_reference>0</spring_reference>
<spring_stiffness>0</spring_stiffness>
</dynamics>
</axis>
<axis2>
<xyz>1 0 0</xyz>
<dynamics>
<friction>18.0474</friction>
<spring_reference>0</spring_reference>
<spring_stiffness>0</spring_stiffness>
</dynamics>
<use_parent_model_frame>0</use_parent_model_frame>
</axis2>
</joint>
<joint name='front_right_combined_joint' type='universal'>
<pose frame=''>0 0 0 -0.087266 0 0</pose>
<child>front_right_wheel</child>
<parent>chassis</parent>
<axis>
<xyz>0 0 1</xyz>
<limit>
<lower>-0.8727</lower>
<upper>0.8727</upper>
</limit>
<use_parent_model_frame>0</use_parent_model_frame>
<dynamics>
<spring_reference>0</spring_reference>
<spring_stiffness>0</spring_stiffness>
</dynamics>
</axis>
<axis2>
<xyz>1 0 0</xyz>
<dynamics>
<friction>18.0474</friction>
<spring_reference>0</spring_reference>
<spring_stiffness>0</spring_stiffness>
</dynamics>
<use_parent_model_frame>0</use_parent_model_frame>
</axis2>
</joint>
<link name='rear_axle'>
<pose frame=''>0 1.45 0.3 0 -0 0</pose>
<inertial>
<mass>30</mass>
<inertia>
<ixx>0.084375</ixx>
<ixy>0</ixy>
<iyy>4.64581</iyy>
<ixz>0</ixz>
<iyz>0</iyz>
<izz>4.64581</izz>
</inertia>
</inertial>
<visual name='visual'>
<pose frame=''>0 0 0 3.14159 1.57079 3.14159</pose>
<geometry>
<cylinder>
<length>1.357</length>
<radius>0.075</radius>
</cylinder>
</geometry>
<material>
<script>
<name>Gazebo/Grey</name>
<uri>file://media/materials/scripts/gazebo.material</uri>
</script>
</material>
</visual>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<joint name='rear_axle_joint' type='revolute'>
<child>rear_axle</child>
<parent>chassis</parent>
<axis>
<xyz>0 1 0</xyz>
<limit>
<lower>-0.0508906</lower>
<upper>0.0508906</upper>
</limit>
<dynamics>
<spring_stiffness>20000</spring_stiffness>
<damping>2000</damping>
<spring_reference>0</spring_reference>
</dynamics>
<use_parent_model_frame>0</use_parent_model_frame>
</axis>
</joint>
<joint name='rear_left_wheel_joint' type='revolute'>
<child>rear_left_wheel</child>
<parent>rear_axle</parent>
<axis>
<xyz>1 0 0</xyz>
<dynamics>
<friction>12.0316</friction>
<spring_reference>0</spring_reference>
<spring_stiffness>0</spring_stiffness>
</dynamics>
<use_parent_model_frame>0</use_parent_model_frame>
<limit>
<lower>-1e+16</lower>
<upper>1e+16</upper>
</limit>
</axis>
</joint>
<joint name='rear_right_wheel_joint' type='revolute'>
<child>rear_right_wheel</child>
<parent>rear_axle</parent>
<axis>
<xyz>1 0 0</xyz>
<dynamics>
<friction>12.0316</friction>
<spring_reference>0</spring_reference>
<spring_stiffness>0</spring_stiffness>
</dynamics>
<use_parent_model_frame>0</use_parent_model_frame>
<limit>
<lower>-1e+16</lower>
<upper>1e+16</upper>
</limit>
</axis>
</joint>
<joint name='steering_joint' type='revolute'>
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<parent>chassis</parent>
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</collision>
<collision name='left-angle'>
<pose frame=''>0 -0.224 0.2401 0.9 -0 0</pose>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>4.06542 0.5 0.064516</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<collision name='right-angle'>
<pose frame=''>0 0.224 0.2401 -0.9 0 0</pose>
<geometry>
<box>
<size>4.06542 0.5 0.064516</size>
</box>
</geometry>
<max_contacts>10</max_contacts>
<surface>
<contact>
<ode/>
</contact>
<bounce/>
<friction>
<torsional>
<ode/>
</torsional>
<ode/>
</friction>
</surface>
</collision>
<self_collide>0</self_collide>
<enable_wind>0</enable_wind>
<kinematic>0</kinematic>
</link>
<pose frame=''>3.65333 3.73402 0 0 -0 1.5691</pose>
</model>
<!-- Define the lighting of the world -->
<light name='sun' type='directional'>
<cast_shadows>1</cast_shadows>
<pose frame=''>0 0 10 0 -0 0</pose>
<diffuse>0.8 0.8 0.8 1</diffuse>
<specular>0.2 0.2 0.2 1</specular>
<attenuation>
<range>1000</range>
<constant>0.9</constant>
<linear>0.01</linear>
<quadratic>0.001</quadratic>
</attenuation>
<direction>-0.5 0.1 -0.9</direction>
</light>
<!-- Define the physics of the world -->
<gravity>0 0 -9.8</gravity>
<magnetic_field>6e-06 2.3e-05 -4.2e-05</magnetic_field>
<atmosphere type='adiabatic'/>
<physics name='default_physics' default='0' type='ode'>
<max_step_size>0.001</max_step_size>
<real_time_factor>1</real_time_factor>
<real_time_update_rate>1000</real_time_update_rate>
</physics>
<scene>
<ambient>0.4 0.4 0.4 1</ambient>
<background>0.7 0.7 0.7 1</background>
<shadows>1</shadows>
</scene>
<audio>
<device>default</device>
</audio>
<wind/>
<!-- Define the latitude, longitude, and elevation -->
<spherical_coordinates>
<surface_model>EARTH_WGS84</surface_model>
<latitude_deg>47.840640</latitude_deg>
<longitude_deg>10.619944</longitude_deg>
<elevation>740.0</elevation>
<!-- currently gazebo has a bug: instead of outputing lat, long, altitude in ENU
(x = East, y = North and z = Up) as the default configurations, it's outputting (-E)(-N)U,
therefore we rotate the default frame 180 so that it would go back to ENU -->
<heading_deg>180</heading_deg>
</spherical_coordinates>
<!-- Define the user perspective of the world -->
<gui fullscreen='0'>
<camera name='user_camera'>
<pose frame=''>35.0 3.5 43.0 0.0 0.85 -3.1295</pose>
<view_controller>orbit</view_controller>
<projection_type>perspective</projection_type>
</camera>
</gui>
<!-- Import our own robot and set the location where we want to spawn it -->
<!--
<include>
<pose>0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0</pose>
<uri>model://two_wheeled_robot_description</uri>
</include>
-->
</world>
</sdf>
3.2 构建仿真环境
接下来就考虑如何把模型加载到Gazebo中了，需要用到一个gazebo提供的功能节点spwan_entity。
3.2.1 launch/load_urdf_into_gazebo.launch.py
在launch文件夹下创建load_urdf_into_gazebo.launch.py文件；
import os
from ament_index_python.packages import get_package_share_directory
from launch import LaunchDescription
from launch.actions import IncludeLaunchDescription
from launch.launch_description_sources import PythonLaunchDescriptionSource
from launch_ros.actions import Node
def generate_launch_description():
# Include the robot_state_publisher launch file, provided by our own package. Force sim time to be enabled
# !!! MAKE SURE YOU SET THE PACKAGE NAME CORRECTLY !!!
package_name='my_learning_gazebo' #<--- CHANGE ME
world_file_path = 'worlds/neighborhood.world'
pkg_path = os.path.join(get_package_share_directory(package_name))
world_path = os.path.join(pkg_path, world_file_path)
# Pose where we want to spawn the robot
spawn_x_val = '0.0'
spawn_y_val = '0.0'
spawn_z_val = '0.0'
spawn_yaw_val = '0.0'
mbot = IncludeLaunchDescription(
PythonLaunchDescriptionSource([os.path.join(
get_package_share_directory(package_name),'launch','mbot.launch.py'
)]), launch_arguments={'use_sim_time': 'true', 'world':world_path}.items()
)
# Include the Gazebo launch file, provided by the gazebo_ros package
gazebo = IncludeLaunchDescription(
PythonLaunchDescriptionSource([os.path.join(
get_package_share_directory('gazebo_ros'), 'launch', 'gazebo.launch.py')]),
)
# Run the spawner node from the gazebo_ros package. The entity name doesn't really matter if you only have a single robot.
spawn_entity = Node(package='gazebo_ros', executable='spawn_entity.py',
arguments=['-topic', 'robot_description',
'-entity', 'mbot',
'-x', spawn_x_val,
'-y', spawn_y_val,
'-z', spawn_z_val,
'-Y', spawn_yaw_val],
output='screen')
# Launch them all!
return LaunchDescription([
mbot,
gazebo,
spawn_entity,
])
负责一次性启动Gazebo仿真环境、加载机器人模型，并把机器人“投放”到世界里。这个文件的工作流是：
① 算出路径（找到地图在哪）；
② 启动 mbot 节点（准备好机器人的模型数据）
③ 启动 Gazebo 窗口（准备好世界）
④ 启动 spawn_entity（把模型数据发给Gazebo，让机器人出现在世界里）。
3.2.2 launch/mbot.launch.py
在launch文件夹下创建mbot.launch.py文件；
import os
from ament_index_python.packages import get_package_share_directory
from launch import LaunchDescription
from launch.substitutions import LaunchConfiguration
from launch.actions import DeclareLaunchArgument
from launch_ros.actions import Node
import xacro
def generate_launch_description():
# Check if we're told to use sim time
use_sim_time = LaunchConfiguration('use_sim_time')
# Process the URDF file
pkg_path = os.path.join(get_package_share_directory('my_learning_gazebo'))
xacro_file = os.path.join(pkg_path,'urdf','mbot_gazebo.xacro')
robot_description_config = xacro.process_file(xacro_file)
# Create a robot_state_publisher node
params = {'robot_description': robot_description_config.toxml(), 'use_sim_time': use_sim_time}
node_robot_state_publisher = Node(
package='robot_state_publisher',
executable='robot_state_publisher',
output='screen',
parameters=[params]
)
# Launch!
return LaunchDescription([
DeclareLaunchArgument(
'use_sim_time',
default_value='false',
description='Use sim time if true'),
node_robot_state_publisher
])
把机器人的模型文件（Xacro）解析成ROS能看懂的格式（URDF），并发布出去。
3.3 机器人运动仿真
编译程序：
zhengyang@ubuntu:~/dev_ws$ colcon build --paths src/my_learning_gazebo
zhengyang@ubuntu:~/dev_ws$ source install/setup.sh
我们需要运行两句命令，首先打开第一个终端，启动仿真环境；
zhengyang@ubuntu:~/dev_ws$ source /usr/share/gazebo/setup.sh
zhengyang@ubuntu:~/dev_ws$ ros2 launch my_learning_gazebo load_urdf_into_gazebo.launch.py
打开第二个终端，启动键盘控制节点；
zhengyang@ubuntu:~/dev_ws$ ros2 run teleop_twist_keyboard teleop_twist_keyboard
通过键盘上的i、j、，、l几个按键，就可以控制机器人前后左右运动啦。
整个仿真有点像控制小海龟的过程，不过此时的机器人和仿真环境，已经比小海龟复杂很多了。
以上就是Gazebo机器人的仿真的基本流程。
参考文章
[1] 古月居ROS2入门教程学习笔记
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