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$ARMA(1, ~ 1)$ process is a time series $\left{ X_{t} \right}$ defined as: $$ X_{t} - \phi X_{t-1} = Z_{t} + \theta Z_{t-1} $$ where $|\phi| < 1$ and 阅读全文
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We introduced measure and Lebesgue Integral due to the deficiency of Riemann Integral. In general, there are at least three problematic issues about R 阅读全文
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首先我们先定义 \(\mathbb{R}\) 上的开区间: An open interval in \(\mathbb{R}\) is any set of the form: \[ \left\{ x \in \mathbb{R}: ~ a < x < b \right\},\quad\mbox{ 阅读全文
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Definition. (Product $\sigma-$field) Let \(\Omega_1\) and \(\Omega_2\) be two (universal) sets and \(\Omega ~ = ~ \Omega_1 \times \Omega_2\) be the Ca 阅读全文