1. intersubjectivity: common truth, common world view
2. philosophical skepticism (the big doubt): 不相信任何从前的东西，尽量的从头开始研究，来建立更加稳定安全的知识
3. empiricism：All knowlege based on sensory experience or observations (Alternatively, 尽量少的推理)
4. episteme (认识论)：the knowledges of facts, such as physicst. One type of knowledge.
(Another type of knowledge is Techne, called action knowledge, such as circus artist)
5. presupposition for science:
a) There is a real world that is independent of our senses
b) This real world is common to all of us
c) With combined forces we can achieve, or at least approach, knowledge about this real world that is common
to us all
6. What science and democracy presuppose: a rational public discussion where arguments are tried
against each other
7. What scientific corpus consist of: accepted scientific statements, scientific knowledge, everything true until we
start to doubt with good reasons
8. Which roads to intersubjective knowledge: through our senses and our reasoning
9. Rationalism: Emphasis on rational reasoning and argumentation
10. The first university laboratory: In 1599 Galieo Galilei found it
11. vagueness: Another form of unclarity, the absence of a sharp limit between cases covered and not covered by
the word, such as "bald", 没头发，还是头发几根
12. definiens: 下定义用的词语, Definiendum + defining connective + definien = definition 例如， ion 被定义为 electrically
chargedatom or molecule
13. definiendum: left-hand side of a definition form. Example, "human being" =def "rational animal", Definiendum
in this case is "human being"
14. lexical: 词汇的， the sense of a word as it is actual used, the meaning of term in common usage, 尽可能简单，
而宽泛，模糊的定义是不可接受的
15. how arguments should be put forward in a rational discussion: sufficiently clearly and in sufficently small steps
to make it possible to follow and check them. 避免逻辑错误，使得结论依据的假设清晰。
在另一方面，太细节化也不是能容忍的。所以实际中，使用abbreviated expressions。这些缩写应该可扩展。
无争论或者可知证明的假设可以忽略，不表示，也就是隐藏在缩写中。
16. ambiguity: if it may be interpreeted in more than one way
17. lexical definitions of value-laden terms: 加之偏向，terms or words have strong emotional overtones (附带意义) or
connotations （内涵）and evoke strongly positive (or negative) reactions beyond their literal meaning.
18. hypothesis: tentative conjecture explaining an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that
can be tested by further observation, investigation, and/or experimentation. Alternatively, a suggested
explanation for a phenomenon or of a reasoned proposal suggesting a possbile correlation between
multiple phenomena. In addition, ideas that are put forward to be tried out are often called hypothesis.
19. what means that observations are theory dependent: 通过概念知道，什么类型的观察能本质的发现规律。
反过来，这些概念理论，也是从之前的观察得来的。
20. difference between experiment and controlled observation:
- experiment: planned observation, observer manipulates the variables
- controlled observation: planned observation, cannot be manipulates and change the variables
- uncontrolled observation: variables no known
- rumour: cannot be traced down to their origin
26. "tendency" of a source: according to the informant's purpose
29. what must be satisfied in order to call an experiment repeatable: performed under well-controlled conditions
30. controlled variation means the experiment is performed with several different input values.
例如，不同剂量的测试，能够产生最优的治疗效果，对比副作用来说
31. hypothetico-deductive method: 推导结论从一系列的假设，然后通过测试实验产生的结果，测试这些假设的有效性。
34. what the Vienna school (the logical positivests逻辑实证主义者) think of verfication and falsificaiton:
a scientific theory or sentence is only be valid or meaningful if it is possible to verify it.
35. What Karl Popper's views on verification and falsification: 他提议我们不应该尝试去证实理论或假设的正确性。
他主要论点是理论或假设是由普遍的statement组成的，因此不能够被证实。
36. mass-correlation: When performing statistical hypothesis testing, 一些serious mistakes出现在搜索中是很常见的，
如果大量的统计测试对于大量的材料，就会发现统计意义上的关联（或者说chance effects）
37. In the context of hypothesis testing, what is meant by "individuation asymmetry":
通常某个科学问题包括2个彼此相反statement，所以通过否定一个，就能证明另外一个。
One of statements is more suitable than the other
38. In the context of hypthesis testing, verification asymmetry: one is easier to verify than the other
39. crucial experiment: 通过这个单独的实验，可证实理论的正确还是不正确
40. what ‘Occam’s razor' imply: 2个合理的假设都能解释给定的现象的话，我们就选其中之一就好了。
说白了，就是能少则少，不加没用的
43. reduction: 通过简单现象（simple phenomenon）解释复杂的现象（complex one）
45. functional explanation: 当讨论某个事物时，我们经常只需要解释事物的属性即可，通过描述事物所服务的目的的方法
46. “post hoc ergo propter hoc”: "after this, thus because of this". correlations or coincidences shoudl not
be interpreted as cause-effect relationships
47. a strong statistical correlation: a common, underlying cause, but do not have cause-effect relationships
49. spurious relations: 没有因果关联的2个时间，看起来好像有关联，是因为某个第三方的因素影响的
50. control variables: extraneous factors; to prevent infulence on the effect of independent variable
on the dependent; to minimize their effects on the outcome. 例如，保持气压不变，来测试气温对细菌生长的影响
52. naive inductivism:
- objective and accurate observations are made (facts)
- generalizations are drawn from observations (induction)
- scientific laws and theories result from generalizations
53. principle of inductino: If in a wide range of condition a large quantity of A is observed,
and every A possess, with no exception, property B, then all A have property B
54. are inductive arguments logically valid and do they lead to true conclusions:
只有arguments和deduction过程为真时，induction是logically valid。但是反过来logic不会决定他们是否为真。
之前的例子swan，就说明了inductive statements and conclusions永远不会为真。
inductive arguments或多或少的满足标准，但不会完美的满足，所以只能recommend conclusion，
以更高或更低的概率度数。因此附加的信息影响了inductive argument的稳定性。
56. What is David Hume's(skeptical) response to the Problem of induction:
- this is how we humans work, all beliefs about unobserved matters of fact are derived from experience
by induction
- we are not justifed in making such inductive inferences
57. Karl Popper's response to the problem of induction:
区分科学理论和非科学理论，a scientific theory must be falsifiable
64. what characterizes pbservations statements:
depend on theory and are fallible. Hence there are no conclusive falsifications.
65. what the history of science tell us about the limits of falsificationism:
That at times a theory could have been falsificated with the wrong observations,
when those were the only ones available at the time.
66. when is a Lakatos-style research program progressive, rather than degenerate:
a progressive research program is marked by its growth, along with the discovery of stunning novel
facts developement of new experimental techniques, more precise predictios, etc.
A degenerative research program is marked by lack of growth, or growth of
the protective belt that does not lead to novel facts.
67. which the most problematic task for Imre Lakatos's account of scientific research programs:
comparing research programs to see which is better and stablishing which one is progressive and
which ones are degenerate. Usually this can only be done retrospectively, when the degeneration of
a program is a historical fact.
68. what is not important for a research program: falsification, 换句话说，得给人家机会尝试一下啊
69. what say praradigms are incommensurable:
no common theoretical language, no way to compare them which is better,
no a single criterio which better with their own premises.
70. Thomos Kuhn's account of scientific progress:
不仅是科学家对工作的描述。它是科学理论因为包括了对组件功能的解释。组件形成了一个循环：
pre-science - normal science - crisis - revolution - new normal science - new crisis
71. Rationalism: only one universal, temporal criterion to judge the merits of a theory and its rivals
72. relativism: 否定rationlism，没有统一规则，每个个体或团体都是有不同的理解对同一件东西。
73. objectivism: a concept that states that data that consistute knowledge have properties and
characteristics that transcend beliefs and the state of conscience of the individuals.
Knowledge is outside the individuals and the minds.
74. subjevtivist theory according to Chalmers' terminology: for which knowledge is understood
in terms of the beliefs supported by individuals. A subjectvist will be able to claim that
one of his or her beliefs is knowledge if it can be justified.
75. how Paul Feyerabend characterize the choice between competing scientific theories:
radical, fail to provide a general description of science and devidsing a method for
differentiate products of science from non-science,
no scientific methodology successful(not realistic, pernicous, prejudicial to science),
76. According to Paul Feyerabend, what is the relation between individual freedom and institutionalized science:
will of the human being to be more individual and freedom, instituionalization of science is
incompatible with this huamnitarian attitude.
77. realism in the eheory of science:
expresses the view that scientific theories describe the real world.
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